Abstract
This article provides an introduction to the study of lay Christian religiosity in late antique and medieval Egypt, focusing on the names and status of laypeople from the fourth century onward. The laity is presented as an unstable and fluid category, defined primarily in opposition to clergy and monks. However, the lay status of individuals was often ambiguous, as there were overlapping identities between the clergy and laity (e.g., those in ‘minor orders’) and between the laity and monks (e.g., ‘the pious ones’). The article identifies four major clusters of sources for studying lay religiosity: church canons, homilies, miracle collections, and documentary papyri. A brief overview of each cluster is provided, highlighting their relevance to the study of lay Christian practices.
References
Primary Sources
Agathon of Alexandria (Pseudo-), De consecratione ecclesiae Macarii: Livre de la consécration du sanctuaire de Benjamin, ed. R.-G. Gascou, Bibliothèque d’études coptes, Caire 1975.
Athanasius of Alexandria, Vita Antonii: Athanase d’Alexandrie, Vie d’Antoine, ed. G.J.M. Bartelink, Sources chrétiennes 400, 2004.
Athanasius of Alexandria (Pseudo-), De homicidis: I. Saweros (ed. & trans.), Another Athanasius: Four Sahidic Homilies Attributed to Athanasius of Alexandria: Two Homilies On Michael the Archangel, the Homily on Luke 11:5-9 and the Homily on Pentecost, 2 vols., Corpus scriptorium Christianorum orientalium 675-676, Scriptores Coptici 51-52, vol. 1, pp. I 17-40 (text), vol. 2, pp. 13-32 (transl.).
Basil of Cesarea (Pseudo-), De arca diluvii: Homélies coptes de la Vaticane, vol. 1, ed. H. de Vis, Hauniae 1922, pp. 205-241.
Benjamin of Alexandria, De nuptiis apud Canam: Sermon de Benjamn sur les Noces de Cana. In H. de Vis (ed.), Homélies coptes de la Vaticane, vol. 1, Hauniae 1922, pp. 56-106.
Besa (Pseudo-), Vita Sinuthii: Sinuthii archimandritae vita et opera omnia, ed. J. Leipoldt and W. Crum, Corpus scriptorum Chrstianorum orientalium, Scriptores Coptici 2.1, Parisiis 1906.
Canones (Pseudo-)Athanasii: The Canons of Athanasius of Alexandria: The Arabic and Coptic Versions Edited and Translated With Introduction, Notes and Appendices, ed. W. Riedel, W.E. Crum, London – Oxford 1904.
Canones (Pseudo-)Hippolyti: Les Canons d’Hippolyte, ed. R.-G. Coquin, Patrologia Orientalis 31, 2, Paris 1966; The Canons of Hippolytus, ed. P. Bradshaw, transl. C. Bebawi, Piscataway, NJ, 2010.
Euchologium magnum: Le grand Euchologe du Monastère Blanc, ed. & trans. E. Lanne, Patrologia orientalis 28, 2, Paris 1958.
Euodius of Rome (Pseudo-), De passione: Homily on the Passion and the Resurrection Attributed to Euodius of Rome, ed. & transl. P. Chapman. In L. Depuydt (ed.), Homiletica from the Pierpont Morgan Library: Seven Coptic Homilies Attributed to Basil the Great, John Chrysostom, and Euodius of Rome, 2 vols., Corpus scriptorum Christianorum orientalium 524 (tekst) 525 (tł.), Scriptores Coptici 43-44, ed. & trans. Chapman, vol. 1, pp. 79-106 (text), vol. 2, pp. 83-114 (transl.).
The Feast of the Desert of Apa Shenoute: A Liturgical Procession from the White Monastery in Upper Egypt, ed. S.J. Davis, D. Schriever, and M. Farag, Corpus scriptorium Christianorum orientalium 681, Scriptores Coptici 52, Leuven 2020.
Gregory the Great, Moralia: Gregorius Magnus, Moralia sive Expositio in Iob, ed. M. Adriaen, 3 vols., Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina 143, Turnhout 1979-1985.
Ibn Sabbā‘, Pretiosa margarta: La perle précieuse. Traitant des sciences ecclésiastiques. Chapîtres I-LVI par Jean, fils d’Abou-Zakariya, surnomme Ibn Saba’, ed. J. Périer, Patrologia Orientalis 16, 4, Paris 1922.
Jonas of Orléans, De institutione laicali: Jonas d’ Orléans, Instruction des Laïcs, 2 vols., ed. A. Dubreucq, Sources Chrétiennes 549-550, Paris 2013.
Isaac of Kalamon, Vita Samuelis archmandritae: The Life of Samuel of Kalamun by Isaac the Presbyter, ed. A. Alcock, Warminster 1983.
Pisentius of Coptus, In Onophrium, W. E. Crum, Discours de Pisenthius sur Saint Onnophrius, “Revue de l’Orient chrétien” 1915-1917, 20, pp. 43-57; Histories of the Monks of Upper Egypt and the Life of Onnophrius by Paphnutius with A Discourse on Saint Onnophrius by Pisentius of Coptus, trans. T. Vivian, Cistercian Studies Series 144, Kalamazoo, MI, 2000, pp. 175-188.
Sophronius of Jerusalem, Miracula SS Cyri et Johannis: Los ‘Thaumata’ de Sofronio: Contribucion al estudio de la ‘incubatio’ Cristiana, ed. N. Fernández Marcos, Madrid 1975; Sophrone de Jérusalem, Miracles des saints Cyr et Jean (BHG I 477–479). Traduction commentée, ed. & trans. J. Gascou, Paris 2006.
Vita Longini: Vite dei monaci Phif e Longino, ed. T. Orlandi, Milano 1975.
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Bailey L.K., The Religious Worlds of the Laity in Late Antique Gaul, London 2016.
Barth, H.M., Laie II. Systematisch-theologisch. In Theologische Realenzyklopädie, XX, Berlin 1990, p. 385-393.
Fournet J.-L., P. Stras. V 318 complété: La grande philoponia ’Héracléopolis et les protocoles en cursive incline. In B.P. Muhs, F.A.J. Hoogendijk and M.J. Bakker (eds.), Sixty-five Papyrological Texts Presented to Klaas A. Worp on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday, Papyrologica Lugduno-Batava 33, Leiden 2008, pp. 243-253.
Choat M., The Development and Usage of Terms for ‘Monk’ in Late Antique Egypt, “Journal of Ancient Christianity” 2002, 45, pp. 5-23.
Congar Y., Laïc et laïcat. In Dictionnaire de spiritualité, vol. 9, Paris 1976, coll. 79-107.
Dekker R., Episcopal Networks and Authority in Late Antique Egypt: Bishops of the Theban Region at Work, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, Leuven 2018.
Faivre A., Laie. In Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum, vol. 22, Stuttgart 2008, pp. 826-853.
Frankfurter D., Christianizing Egypt: Syncretism and Local Worlds in Late Antiquity, Princeton 2018.
Gascou J., Un nouveau document sur les confréries chrétiennes: P. Strasb. copte inv. K 41. In A. Boud’hors, J. Gascou, and D. Vaillancourt (eds.), Études coptes IX. Onzième journée d’études (Strasbourg, 12-14 juin 2003), Cahiers de la Bibliothèque copte 14, Paris, 2006, pp. 167-177.
Goetz H.-W., Social and Military Institutions. In R. McKitterick (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. 2: c. 700 – c. 900, 5th ed., Cambridge 2006, pp. 451-480.
Graf G., Verzeichnis arabischer kirchlicher Termini, Louvain 1954.
Green R.A., Introduction. In L. Depuydt (ed.), Homiletica from the Pierpont Morgan Library: Seven Coptic Homilies Attributed to Basil the Great, John Chrysostom, and Euodius of Rome, Corpus scriptorum Christianorum orientalium 525 Scriptores Coptici, 44, Lovanii 1991, pp. V-XXIII.
Judge, E.A., The Earliest Use of Monachos for ‘Monk’ (P.Coll.Youtie 77) and the Origins of Monasticism, “Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum” 1977, 20, pp. 72-89.
Kaufhold H., Sources of Canon Law in the Eastern Churches. In W. Hartmann and K. Pennington (eds.), The History of Byzantine and Eastern Canon Law to 1500, Washington 2012, pp. 215-342.
Kieling M., Formacja duchownych w świetle De institutione clericorum Rabana Maura, “Vox Patrum” 2006, 26, pp. 277-288.
Lusby F.M., Laity. In Encyclopedia of Religion, vol. 2, Framington Hills, MI, 2005, pp. 5286-5291.
Marone P., Laico. In Nuovo dizionario patristico e di antichità Cristiane, red. A. di Berardino, Genova – Milano 2007, coll. 2725-2732
Mossakowska-Gaubert M., Le vêtement monastique en Égypte (IVe-VIIIe siècle), Bibliothèque d’Etudes Coptes 28, Le Caire 2023.
Olivar A., Sobre las ovaciones tributadas a los antiguos predicadores cristianos, “Didaskalia” 1982, 12, pp. 13-43
Orlandi T., Cycles. In A.S. Atiya (ed.), Coptic Encyclopedia, vol. 3, New York 1991, pp. 666-668.
Orlandi T., Coptic Texts Relating to the Church Canons: An Overview, Roma 2016.
Pietras H., Klerykalizacja kapłaństwa w Kościele starożytnym, czyli przyczynek do historii języka religijnego. In B. Iwaszkiewicz-Wronikowska and D. Próchniak (eds.), Sympozja Kazimierskie poświęcone kulturze świata późnego antyku i wczesnego chrześcijaństwa, vol. 6: Ofiara – kapłan – ołtarz w świecie późnego antyku, Lublin 2008, pp. 111-116.
Riedel W., Die Kirchenrechtsquellen des Patriarchats Alexandrien, Leipzig 1900.
Ritter A.M., Laie I. Kirchengeschichtlich. In Theologische Realenzyklopädie, vol. 20, Berlin 1990, pp. 378-385.
Schenke G., Das koptisch hagiographische Dossier des Heiligen Kolluthos, Arzt, Märtyrer und Wunderheiler, Corpus scriptorum Chrstianorum orientalium 650, Subsidia 132, Leuven 2013.
Schmelz G., Kirchliche Amtsträger im spätantiken Ägypten: Nach den Aussagen der griechischen und koptischen Papyri und Ostraka, Archiv für Papyrusforschung und verwandte Gebiete 13, München – Leipzg 2002.
Schöllgen G., Die Anfänge der Professionalisierung des Klerus und das kirchliche Amt in der Syrischen Didaskalie, Münster 1998.
Vanderheyden L., The Figure of Apollos, Father of Dioscorus, in the Light of Coptic Letters From Sixth-Century Aphrodito. In S.E. Huebner et al (eds.), Living the End of Antiquity: Individual Histories from Byzantine to Islamic Egypt, Tübingen 2020, pp. 119-128
Wipszycka E., Les ordres mineurs dans l’Eglise d’Egypte du IVe au VIIIe siècle, “Journal of Juristic Papyrology” 1993, 23, pp. 181-215.
Wipszycka E., Les confréries dans la vie religieuse de l'Égypte chrétienne. In E. Wipszycka, Études sur le christianisme dans l’Égypte de l’Antiquité tardive, Studia Ephemeridis Augustinianum 52, Roma 1996, pp. 257-278.
Wipszycka E., Moines et communautés monastiques en Egypte (IVε ν Ille siècles), Journal od Jurstic Papyrology Supplements 11, Warszawa 2009.
Wipszycka E., A Certain Bishop and a Certain Diocese in Egypt at the Turn of the Fourth and Fifth Centuries: The Testimony of the Canons of Athanasius, “U schyłku starożytności - Studia źródłoznawcze” 2022, 17-18, pp. 91-115
Wipszycka E., Derda T., L’emploi des titres abba, apa et papas dans l’Egypte byzantine, “Journal of Jurstic Papyrology” 1994, 24, pp. 23-56.
Zanetti U., Y eut-il des diaconesses en Egypte?, “Vetera Christianorum” 1990, 27, pp. 369-373.
Agathon of Alexandria (Pseudo-), De consecratione ecclesiae Macarii: Livre de la consécration du sanctuaire de Benjamin, ed. R.-G. Gascou, Bibliothèque d’études coptes, Caire 1975.
Athanasius of Alexandria, Vita Antonii: Athanase d’Alexandrie, Vie d’Antoine, ed. G.J.M. Bartelink, Sources chrétiennes 400, 2004.
Athanasius of Alexandria (Pseudo-), De homicidis: I. Saweros (ed. & trans.), Another Athanasius: Four Sahidic Homilies Attributed to Athanasius of Alexandria: Two Homilies On Michael the Archangel, the Homily on Luke 11:5-9 and the Homily on Pentecost, 2 vols., Corpus scriptorium Christianorum orientalium 675-676, Scriptores Coptici 51-52, vol. 1, pp. I 17-40 (text), vol. 2, pp. 13-32 (transl.).
Basil of Cesarea (Pseudo-), De arca diluvii: Homélies coptes de la Vaticane, vol. 1, ed. H. de Vis, Hauniae 1922, pp. 205-241.
Benjamin of Alexandria, De nuptiis apud Canam: Sermon de Benjamn sur les Noces de Cana. In H. de Vis (ed.), Homélies coptes de la Vaticane, vol. 1, Hauniae 1922, pp. 56-106.
Besa (Pseudo-), Vita Sinuthii: Sinuthii archimandritae vita et opera omnia, ed. J. Leipoldt and W. Crum, Corpus scriptorum Chrstianorum orientalium, Scriptores Coptici 2.1, Parisiis 1906.
Canones (Pseudo-)Athanasii: The Canons of Athanasius of Alexandria: The Arabic and Coptic Versions Edited and Translated With Introduction, Notes and Appendices, ed. W. Riedel, W.E. Crum, London – Oxford 1904.
Canones (Pseudo-)Hippolyti: Les Canons d’Hippolyte, ed. R.-G. Coquin, Patrologia Orientalis 31, 2, Paris 1966; The Canons of Hippolytus, ed. P. Bradshaw, transl. C. Bebawi, Piscataway, NJ, 2010.
Euchologium magnum: Le grand Euchologe du Monastère Blanc, ed. & trans. E. Lanne, Patrologia orientalis 28, 2, Paris 1958.
Euodius of Rome (Pseudo-), De passione: Homily on the Passion and the Resurrection Attributed to Euodius of Rome, ed. & transl. P. Chapman. In L. Depuydt (ed.), Homiletica from the Pierpont Morgan Library: Seven Coptic Homilies Attributed to Basil the Great, John Chrysostom, and Euodius of Rome, 2 vols., Corpus scriptorum Christianorum orientalium 524 (tekst) 525 (tł.), Scriptores Coptici 43-44, ed. & trans. Chapman, vol. 1, pp. 79-106 (text), vol. 2, pp. 83-114 (transl.).
The Feast of the Desert of Apa Shenoute: A Liturgical Procession from the White Monastery in Upper Egypt, ed. S.J. Davis, D. Schriever, and M. Farag, Corpus scriptorium Christianorum orientalium 681, Scriptores Coptici 52, Leuven 2020.
Gregory the Great, Moralia: Gregorius Magnus, Moralia sive Expositio in Iob, ed. M. Adriaen, 3 vols., Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina 143, Turnhout 1979-1985.
Ibn Sabbā‘, Pretiosa margarta: La perle précieuse. Traitant des sciences ecclésiastiques. Chapîtres I-LVI par Jean, fils d’Abou-Zakariya, surnomme Ibn Saba’, ed. J. Périer, Patrologia Orientalis 16, 4, Paris 1922.
Jonas of Orléans, De institutione laicali: Jonas d’ Orléans, Instruction des Laïcs, 2 vols., ed. A. Dubreucq, Sources Chrétiennes 549-550, Paris 2013.
Isaac of Kalamon, Vita Samuelis archmandritae: The Life of Samuel of Kalamun by Isaac the Presbyter, ed. A. Alcock, Warminster 1983.
Pisentius of Coptus, In Onophrium, W. E. Crum, Discours de Pisenthius sur Saint Onnophrius, “Revue de l’Orient chrétien” 1915-1917, 20, pp. 43-57; Histories of the Monks of Upper Egypt and the Life of Onnophrius by Paphnutius with A Discourse on Saint Onnophrius by Pisentius of Coptus, trans. T. Vivian, Cistercian Studies Series 144, Kalamazoo, MI, 2000, pp. 175-188.
Sophronius of Jerusalem, Miracula SS Cyri et Johannis: Los ‘Thaumata’ de Sofronio: Contribucion al estudio de la ‘incubatio’ Cristiana, ed. N. Fernández Marcos, Madrid 1975; Sophrone de Jérusalem, Miracles des saints Cyr et Jean (BHG I 477–479). Traduction commentée, ed. & trans. J. Gascou, Paris 2006.
Vita Longini: Vite dei monaci Phif e Longino, ed. T. Orlandi, Milano 1975.
Secondary Sources
Bailey L.K., The Religious Worlds of the Laity in Late Antique Gaul, London 2016.
Barth, H.M., Laie II. Systematisch-theologisch. In Theologische Realenzyklopädie, XX, Berlin 1990, p. 385-393.
Fournet J.-L., P. Stras. V 318 complété: La grande philoponia ’Héracléopolis et les protocoles en cursive incline. In B.P. Muhs, F.A.J. Hoogendijk and M.J. Bakker (eds.), Sixty-five Papyrological Texts Presented to Klaas A. Worp on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday, Papyrologica Lugduno-Batava 33, Leiden 2008, pp. 243-253.
Choat M., The Development and Usage of Terms for ‘Monk’ in Late Antique Egypt, “Journal of Ancient Christianity” 2002, 45, pp. 5-23.
Congar Y., Laïc et laïcat. In Dictionnaire de spiritualité, vol. 9, Paris 1976, coll. 79-107.
Dekker R., Episcopal Networks and Authority in Late Antique Egypt: Bishops of the Theban Region at Work, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, Leuven 2018.
Faivre A., Laie. In Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum, vol. 22, Stuttgart 2008, pp. 826-853.
Frankfurter D., Christianizing Egypt: Syncretism and Local Worlds in Late Antiquity, Princeton 2018.
Gascou J., Un nouveau document sur les confréries chrétiennes: P. Strasb. copte inv. K 41. In A. Boud’hors, J. Gascou, and D. Vaillancourt (eds.), Études coptes IX. Onzième journée d’études (Strasbourg, 12-14 juin 2003), Cahiers de la Bibliothèque copte 14, Paris, 2006, pp. 167-177.
Goetz H.-W., Social and Military Institutions. In R. McKitterick (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. 2: c. 700 – c. 900, 5th ed., Cambridge 2006, pp. 451-480.
Graf G., Verzeichnis arabischer kirchlicher Termini, Louvain 1954.
Green R.A., Introduction. In L. Depuydt (ed.), Homiletica from the Pierpont Morgan Library: Seven Coptic Homilies Attributed to Basil the Great, John Chrysostom, and Euodius of Rome, Corpus scriptorum Christianorum orientalium 525 Scriptores Coptici, 44, Lovanii 1991, pp. V-XXIII.
Judge, E.A., The Earliest Use of Monachos for ‘Monk’ (P.Coll.Youtie 77) and the Origins of Monasticism, “Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum” 1977, 20, pp. 72-89.
Kaufhold H., Sources of Canon Law in the Eastern Churches. In W. Hartmann and K. Pennington (eds.), The History of Byzantine and Eastern Canon Law to 1500, Washington 2012, pp. 215-342.
Kieling M., Formacja duchownych w świetle De institutione clericorum Rabana Maura, “Vox Patrum” 2006, 26, pp. 277-288.
Lusby F.M., Laity. In Encyclopedia of Religion, vol. 2, Framington Hills, MI, 2005, pp. 5286-5291.
Marone P., Laico. In Nuovo dizionario patristico e di antichità Cristiane, red. A. di Berardino, Genova – Milano 2007, coll. 2725-2732
Mossakowska-Gaubert M., Le vêtement monastique en Égypte (IVe-VIIIe siècle), Bibliothèque d’Etudes Coptes 28, Le Caire 2023.
Olivar A., Sobre las ovaciones tributadas a los antiguos predicadores cristianos, “Didaskalia” 1982, 12, pp. 13-43
Orlandi T., Cycles. In A.S. Atiya (ed.), Coptic Encyclopedia, vol. 3, New York 1991, pp. 666-668.
Orlandi T., Coptic Texts Relating to the Church Canons: An Overview, Roma 2016.
Pietras H., Klerykalizacja kapłaństwa w Kościele starożytnym, czyli przyczynek do historii języka religijnego. In B. Iwaszkiewicz-Wronikowska and D. Próchniak (eds.), Sympozja Kazimierskie poświęcone kulturze świata późnego antyku i wczesnego chrześcijaństwa, vol. 6: Ofiara – kapłan – ołtarz w świecie późnego antyku, Lublin 2008, pp. 111-116.
Riedel W., Die Kirchenrechtsquellen des Patriarchats Alexandrien, Leipzig 1900.
Ritter A.M., Laie I. Kirchengeschichtlich. In Theologische Realenzyklopädie, vol. 20, Berlin 1990, pp. 378-385.
Schenke G., Das koptisch hagiographische Dossier des Heiligen Kolluthos, Arzt, Märtyrer und Wunderheiler, Corpus scriptorum Chrstianorum orientalium 650, Subsidia 132, Leuven 2013.
Schmelz G., Kirchliche Amtsträger im spätantiken Ägypten: Nach den Aussagen der griechischen und koptischen Papyri und Ostraka, Archiv für Papyrusforschung und verwandte Gebiete 13, München – Leipzg 2002.
Schöllgen G., Die Anfänge der Professionalisierung des Klerus und das kirchliche Amt in der Syrischen Didaskalie, Münster 1998.
Vanderheyden L., The Figure of Apollos, Father of Dioscorus, in the Light of Coptic Letters From Sixth-Century Aphrodito. In S.E. Huebner et al (eds.), Living the End of Antiquity: Individual Histories from Byzantine to Islamic Egypt, Tübingen 2020, pp. 119-128
Wipszycka E., Les ordres mineurs dans l’Eglise d’Egypte du IVe au VIIIe siècle, “Journal of Juristic Papyrology” 1993, 23, pp. 181-215.
Wipszycka E., Les confréries dans la vie religieuse de l'Égypte chrétienne. In E. Wipszycka, Études sur le christianisme dans l’Égypte de l’Antiquité tardive, Studia Ephemeridis Augustinianum 52, Roma 1996, pp. 257-278.
Wipszycka E., Moines et communautés monastiques en Egypte (IVε ν Ille siècles), Journal od Jurstic Papyrology Supplements 11, Warszawa 2009.
Wipszycka E., A Certain Bishop and a Certain Diocese in Egypt at the Turn of the Fourth and Fifth Centuries: The Testimony of the Canons of Athanasius, “U schyłku starożytności - Studia źródłoznawcze” 2022, 17-18, pp. 91-115
Wipszycka E., Derda T., L’emploi des titres abba, apa et papas dans l’Egypte byzantine, “Journal of Jurstic Papyrology” 1994, 24, pp. 23-56.
Zanetti U., Y eut-il des diaconesses en Egypte?, “Vetera Christianorum” 1990, 27, pp. 369-373.